Cities and states

Surplus, writing, hierarchy.

Why states appeared

Storable surplus allowed specialists, and specialists needed administration. Early writing systems record grain, labour and taxes rather than stories.

Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus valley and China developed early urban states.
Law codes such as Hammurabi's show organised authority in written form.

What it cost

Early states brought defence and organisation, and also taxation, forced labour and slavery. Both sides belong in the account.